Cong thuc toan

Observational methods
Observational methods are useful ways in which teachers can build judgements about
individual pupils. There is a whole range of methods but some are easier to use in a busy
classroom than others. Overall, it is worth thinking about selecting a ‘toolkit’ of user-friendly
methods and making good and regular use of them. They need to be easily understood by the
whole class team, teacher and teaching assistants, and should help the team and the parents
and others learn about the pupil. Below are some well-established methods which you might
consider using to observe the pupils. Needless to say, this is not a definitive list!
Running Records.
A running record is a continuous observation of a behavior stream for a particular period
of time. The observer writes down what the pupil says and does for a length of time or a
particular activity. During the recording, the observer should aim not to interpret what is seen
but to provide an account of a naturally occurring behaviour. The purpose of the running
record is to gather a great deal of information, which is generally qualitative in nature. After
making a record, the observer may write up their conclusion and briefly summarise what
occurred.Running records clearly support planning of activities for individual pupils. They result in the systematic collection of detailed, descriptive narrative data about development. The main problems for teachers are that they require time to be set aside at regular intervals when anobserver, usually the teacher or a teaching assistant, is freed to make the record. Making good running records calls for a good understanding of how children learn, knowledge of the child being observed, sensitivity, expertise and objectivity on the part of the observer.
Anecdotal Records
An anecdotal record is a short, concise, nonj udgmental written record of one directly
observed incident rather than a narrative about a continuous stream of behaviour. The
observer records the incident after the observation and briefly captures the essence of what
the pupil said and did and the context in which this occurred. Not j ust any event is recorded;
records are kept only of something the pupils says or does that seems as developmentally
significant and valuable. Usually, the observer can make a quick memo using key words that
are transcribed later. In many settings, staff use post-it notes for writing down observations of
children engaged in learning activities. The notes are dated and linked to a particular area of
learning or a priority target in the pupil’s individual education plan (IEP). It helps to place the
notes on a notice board alongside the pupil’s name. This helps staff to see which pupils have
been observed and makes it plain if there is a need to focus observations on particular pupils.
Post-it notes only work if staff take the time to organise them and refer to them. The aim is
to systematically gather information, which is generally qualitative in nature, to document
significant evidence of the pupil’s development. These anecdotal records are relatively easy
to use and are less time consuming than running records. They can provides a rich source of
documentation for recording a pupil’s developmental progress in key areas. They are useful
for curriculum planning and constructing IEPs and writing summaries for reports for parents and others. The problems are the same as for running records. They require good skills on
the part of the staff and it is possible to miss important milestones in pupil’s learning. Unless
the class team is exceptionally well-organised, there is a danger of drowning in post-it notes.
Checklists
Many education settings use checklists. A checklist, sometimes called a ticklist or tick chart, is
an inventory of behaviors or skills that the observer marks or checks if the pupil is seen to
demonstrate them. The focus is inevitably on easily observed behaviors or skills that happen
within daily routines and activities. Observations may be conducted for a single period of time
or over several observation periods. The checklist may be filled out during or after the
observation. The class team member who is acting as the observer must be familiar with
each item on the checklist and there must be clear agreement about what earns a tick. The
checklist is used to assess what the pupil says and does at a particular point in time; use of
dates or different coloured inks at different dates helps to track changes over time. Checklists
are efficient and convenient. They are not too demanding of time. Progress within a huge
range of behaviors and skills can be assessed using checklists. However, checklists can
result in missing important information if observations are limited to only those items on
checklist. A checklist indicates only presence or absence and does not indicate anything
about the context in which the observations are conducted. So, it is not a good idea to rely
totally on checklists. They can serve as a basis for identifying the targets of further
observations and to provide a simple audit of how a pupil is progressing within a particular
curriculum area. Checklists work best when observers record additional comments on the
context or