WILLIAM BLACK

Chapter 1 
Chapter 2 
Chapter 3 
Chapter 4 
Chapter 5
Chapter 6

Phonology:
The Sound Patterns of
Language
(Phonemics)





Freedom-Fall 2013
Chapter 5

In the previous chapter, we knew about:
- Speech organs
- Phonetic transcription
- The sound segments are grouped into CONSONANTS and VOWELS.
- Manners of articulation
- Places of articulation
- Phonetic Descriptions of Consonants and Vowels
Preview

After reading this chapter, we should be able to:
Know about some terms:
Phonemics
Phonemes
Allophones

Learning Objectives
cont,

Phonetics & Phonology
Phonemes & Allophones
Phonological Rules
Types of Assimilation


There are systematic differences between:
What speakers memorize about the sounds of
words.
The speech sounds that speakers produce when they utter.
What speakers store in memory about the sounds of language, and how they translate these patterns into speech sounds.
Introduction









Phonetics = acoustic, auditory, and articulatory phonetics.

Phonology = 1)investigates sound differences within a language 2)investigates sound patterns within a language
Phonetics & Phonology
Transcription
Phonemic/abroad transcription
- use the slashes // as phonemic brackets
- least accurate
- ignores precise details
English aspiration of voiceless stops
Phonetic/narrow transcription
use []
much phonetic detail
use of diacritics

What is Phonemics?
Phonemics is a branch of linguistics which studied the organization of speech sounds.

There is a substitution for abstract sound by another to change its meaning.

Eg.Phonetic and phonology (page 66)
how to pronounce T

In fact, they are pronounced a little differently but in general they belong to the same abstract sound [t] called phoneme.
PHONEMES
A phoneme is the smallest distinctive unit of language.
A phonemes may be made up of one or more letters which make one sound.
Notice how the three phonemes sound the same.
THE PHONEMES
/ /
[ ]
…….
[ ]
PHONEME
PHONETICALLY SIMILAR
COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION
Six sectors about phonemes:
Allophones
Phonemic difference
Non-phonemic difference
Phonetic similarity
Complementary distribution
Free variation
Allophones
An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.

A phoneme is not a sound, but a
group of sounds called allophones.
We do not pronounce the phoneme itself.
Eg.
[p] and [ph] are allophones of the phoneme /p/.
[t] and [th] are allophones of the phoneme /t/.

An allophone is an imperceptibly slight variation on a given vocal sound of a language.
Eg.
/k/  in [kil] and [skil]
 the same sound to most people but they are very different sounds under critical phonetic analysis.
2.Phonemic difference

Phonemic difference means substitution of any allophone of one phoneme for any allophone of another phoneme will result in a change in meaning.
3.Non-phonemic difference

The allophones of the same phoneme are differentiated from one another by non-phonemic difference, that is differences which do not cause a change of meaning.
4. Phonetic similarity

Phonetic similarity: Two sounds are said to be phonetically similar when they share the same point or the same manner of articulation.
Eg.
[ t, s, z, n]  the same point of articulation.


Phonetic similarity is used to compare two data strings that may be spelled differently but sound the same.

5.Complementary Distribution(CD)

Complementary distribution: Two phonetically of the same phoneme are in CD when they never occur in the same environment .
Eg. [ph] and [po]
[th] and [to]
More Example

pit spit
[phit] [spit]

til l still
[thil] [stil]


6.Free variation
When two sounds occur in the same environment but do not contrast in that environment, we say that they are in free variation.
Eg.
basic economics

[beisik] – [baesik] [i:] – [e]




PHONEMIC ANALYSIS
Identifying the objectives:
Minimal pair
Phonetically similar
Homonyms
Homographs


Minimal pairs
Definition: A pair of words that have different meanings and which differ in only one sound.
Here is an example from English:
zeal & seal
/zi:l/ /si:l/




word 1 word 2
pin bin
/pɪn/ /bɪn/
rot lot
/rɒt/ /lɒt/
thigh thy
/θaj/ /ðaj/
zeal seal
/ziːl/ /siːl/
bin bean
/bɪn/ /biːn/
pen pan
/pɛn/ /pæn/
hat had
/hæt/ /hæd
Four golden rules for minimal pairs:
Have the same number of sounds.
Identical in every sound except for one.
The sound that is different must be in the same position in each word.
The sound must have different meanings.

Phonemic analysis problems

When two phonemes are nearly similar, how do you do to find they belong to the same phoneme or not?
Eg: “top” [t] & ”stop” [t]

Two conditions to satisfy two sounds belong to the same phoneme or not:
1. The two sounds must be phonetically similar.
2. They must be in complementary distribution.

Homonyms
What the time is
watch
A sixtieth of a minute is not first.
second
Homonyms (same in sounds and spelling but different in meaning)
A learner in the middle of your eye.
pupil
Homographs
Homographs are words that may or may not sound alike but have the same spelling but a different meaning.

Bow
Bow
Scale
Scale
Homographs
Tear
Tear
English phonemes
Phonemes are divided into two kinds:
Segmental phonemes
Supra-segmental phonemes:

Segmental phonemes: distinctive sound-types which can be cut up from the stream of speech.

There are 24 consonants and 12 vowels (according to some phonemicists, there are 9 vowels).

Supra-segmental phonemes:
sound-types which can not be
“cut up” from anything.

There are 12 supra-segmental
phonemes: 4 stresses, 4 pitches
and 4 junctures.

Phonological Rules:
1. Modification of Consonants in Connected Speech

Every speech sound pronounced
in isolation has three stages of
articulation.
(1) The on-glide stage, the articulating
organs move to the position necessary
for the articulation of a sound.
(2)The hold stage, the articulating
organs are kept in the position for a
certain period of time.
(3) The off-glide stage, the articulating
organs return to the position of rest.

Eg. [t]
1. It pronounced in isolation, is the
contact formed by the tip of the
tongue placed against the teeth ridge.
2. The air is compressed behind
the closure.
3. The organs form the obstruction
part rapidly and the compressed air
escapes abruptly.
There are two group influence on sounds:
+Combinative changes
+Positional changes
The sounds are modified by other
sounds near to them in the phonetic
sequence
 As the result, it loses the cleanness and some peculiarities of their articulation.
5.4.2. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESS
Phonology is a dynamic system in which units change as they come into contact with other units in the system.
THREE KINDS OF INFORMATION

Class of sound
The context phonemic enviroment of relevant sounds
The phonetic change
THE FORMALIZATION OF PHONOLOGICAL RULES

V→[+NASAL]/ _ [+NASAL] (C) # ($)
SUMARY:
→ means “becomes” or “is change to”
/ means “the environment of”
_ is placed before or after segments that condition the change
( ) enclose optional the change, whose presence or absence are irrelevant to the rules
$ indicate a syllable boundary
# as word boundary
Þ represent the null unit

Eg.
BUTTER [bʌɾɹ] and NOTABLE [noʊɾəbl]

The intervocalic alveolar flapping



Phonological rules
Assimilation rules
Definition: Assimilation is the sound change because of the influence of the neighbouring sounds.
For (Daniel Jones):
Assimilation is the sound change because of adjacent sounds in the phonemic level
Eg. dogs[s] -> [z] [g]: [dɔgz]
the sound in phonetic level are called simlitude
tenth[n]->[n]




Eg.(For Bertil Mamberg)
let me [t]-> [m]
ten minutes [t]-> [m] [tem minits].

Eg.( For Peter Ladefoded )
input [n] -> [m]
does she [z] -> [ʒ]
in the [n] -> [n]
For the practical purpose of studying, we accept the conception of Sokolova .
 Assimilation is the process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds become fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.
-The word “assimilation” is an example of this phenomenon.

- This Latin word is composed of the preposition ad-to and the adjecive similis-alike.similar: ad-similatio -> assimilatio [ds->ss].

- The nature of assimilation is determined by objective physical and physiological conditions.
TYPES OF ASSIMILATION
It can be distinguished according to:

Direction

Degree of completeness

Degree of stability

The quality of adjacent sounds
1. Direction of assimilation
According to this point assimilation can be:
Progressive
The articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding sound.

Eg. Bacon /beɪkŋ/
Talked /tɔːkt/






b) Regressive
The articulatory features of the preceding sound are changed under the influence of the following sound.

E.g:
news – newspaper /nju:z/ - /nju:speipə/
goose – gooseberry /gu:s/ - /gu:zbəri/
five - five pence /faiv / - /faifpəns/





c) Reciprocal (double)
It means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds.
Eg.
/t + r/ = /t r/  Tree /t ri:/
/d/ + /j/ => /dʒ/  Need you
(/niːd juː/- /niːdʒuː/)
 would you
(/wʊd juː/ - /wʊdʒuː/) 



2) Degree of completeness
According to its degree, assimilation can be complete or incomplete.
Complete assimilation
The two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one.
E.g
Cupboard /p +b/ => /bb/ =>/b/
good bye /d/ + /b/ => /b/
dress shop /s/ + /ʃ/ => /ʃ ʃ / => / ʃ /



b) Incomplete assimilation
The likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features.
It may be devided into two small groups:
Partial assimilation
Intermediate assimilation



Partial assimilation
Eg.
Tenth /n + θ/ => /n θ/ or /n n/
Bad thing /d + θ/ => / d + θ /

Intermediate assimilation
Eg.
have to /v + t/ = /f t/
has to /z + t / = /s t/
used to /zd + t/ = /st t/

Assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the development of the language have become obligatory.
They may, or may not be reflected in spelling.







3.Degree of Stability:
Eg.
orchard (ort + yard) [ɔ:t∫əd] => [ɔ:t∫əd]
picture [piktjur] => [pikt∫ə]
question [kwestjən] => [kwest∫ən]
blossom    /blɒsəm /   =>   [blɒsm̩]
broken    /brəʊkən/   =>  [bɹəʊkŋ̩]
There are a lot of widely spread but non –obligatory cases of assimilation which can be traced mainly at word boundaries.
They are called contextual assimilation.
Eg.
- ten minutes [n+m] = [m+m]
=> [ten minit] => [tem minit]
- London bridge [lʌndən bridʒ] => [lʌndəm bridʒ]
- He loves You [hi lʌvz juː]
=> [hi lʌv ʒuː]
4. Quality of Adjacent Sounds
There can be four special cases of contact assimilation the influences:
1. A consonant on the adjacent consonant.
Eg. black /blæk/
grief /gri:f/
play /plei/.

2. A vowel on the adjacent vowel.
Eg.
hard /hɑːrd/
message /mesɪdʒ/
return /rɪ’tɜːrn/.




3. A consonant on the adjacent vowel.
Eg.
bad /bæd/
get /get/
village /’vɪlɪdʒ/.

4. A vowel on the adjacent consonant.
Eg.
gass /gæs/
heel  /hi:l/
card /kɑːrd/
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