PHONETIC

Chapter 5

Phonology: The sound patterns of language
Definition
Assimilation is a common phonological process by which one sound become more like a nearby sound.
Assimilation Phenomena between Consonants English
1.Modification of the Place of Obstruction and the Active Organ of Speech

a. The alveolar allophones of [t d l n s z] are replaced by the dental variants when immediately followed by the inter-dental [ð, θ].
[t d n s z] + [ð, θ] [t̪ d̪ n̪ s ̪ z̪ ] + [ð, θ]
Example:
Breadth, read this, put that down, tenth, on the desk…
b. The post aveolar [t, d] are heard before the post aveolar [r]
Example: tree, trip, at rest, dream, true…..
c. The bilabial nasal [m]or the aveolar nasal [n] becomes labio-dental nasal under the influence of immediately following labio-dental fricatives [f,v]
Example: emphasis, comfort, infant….


The progressive voicing or devoicing 
a. The consonants [m, n, l, w, r, j] are partially devoiced when preceded voiceless consonants [s, p, k, t, f, θ, ∫]
[s, p, k, t, f, θ, ʃ]+[m, n, l, w, r, j]  [s, p, k, t, f, θ, ʃ]+[mo, no, lo, wo, ro, jo]
Example: small, sneer, slow, sweep…
2. Changes in the Work of the Vocal Cords ( voicing or devoicing)
b. The final “s” may be [s] or [z] according to the preceding voiced or voiceless sound
When “s” stands after voiced, it is pronounced as [z] (except [z, ʒ])
When “s” stands after voiceless, it is pronounced as [s] (except [s, ʃ ])

c. The final “ed” may pronounced [t] or [d] according to the preceding voiced or voiceless sound.
After voiced sound except [d], it is pronounced as [d]
After voiceless sound except [t], it is pronounced as [t]

Regressive voicing or devoicing 
Example
Gooberry [gʊz.br.i] [sb]  [z b]
Have to [hæftə] [vt] [f t]
3. Changes in the Lip Position
Consonant followed by the sonorant [w] change their lip position. They become lip-rounded in anticipation of [w].
Example:
Twinkle
Quite
Swan
4. Changes in the Position of the Soft Palate
Nasal consonants may influence the adjacent stops. This type of assimilation is not typical of English. Sometimes, [d] changes into [n] under the influence of the preceding [n].
Example:
Handsome
Handmade

Nasalization affects mainly the alveolar consonants, especially adjacent to the negative n’t, and is characteristic of very rapid speech.
Example:
[d n] She wouldn’t do it [wunnt]
[d b m] Good morning [gubmɔːnɪŋ]
5. Changes in the Manner of the Release of Plosive Consonants

Plosive + Plosive
When a plosive sound is immediately followed by another plosive sound, only the second plosive is fully exploded, but the closure of the first plosive sound is hold for double the usual time. This is known as incomplete plosion.
A. Incomplete Plosion
5. Changes in the Manner of the Release of Plosive Consonants
For example:
Empty /`empti/
Bookcase /‘bƱk.keɪs/
Acting /`æk.tiŋ /
Plosive + Affricate
In words or between words, when a plosive sound is immediately followed by a affricate sound, the plosive sound is not fully produced (the plosive has no audible release). Then the air rushes out through the narrow passage causing a friction . This is a another type of incomplete plosion.

For example:
Good chance / gʊd tʃænts /
That child / ðæt tʃaɪld /
Big jar / bɪg dʒɑːr /
B. Nasal Plosion
Plosive + Nasal
When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [n, m], it has no release of its own because the lowering of soft palate, which allows the air to escape through the nasal cavity, the so called nasal plosion is produced.
For example:
madman /ˈmæd.mən /
Subnormal / sʌbˈnɔː.məl /
KIEU OANH
C . Lateral Plosion

In the sequence of a plosive (stop) immediately followed by [l], the closure produced for the stop is not released till after [l].
Example :
Cattle /`kætl/
Black /blæk /
Candle /`kændl /









Non-Obligatory Assimilation of Fluent Colloquial Speech







The alveolar consonants [t, d, n, s, z] in word final position are often assimilated by the places of articulation of some initial consonants:


Before [ p, b, m] the consonant
[t] changes into [p]
e.g. that place /ðæt pleis/
[d] changes into [b]
e.g. lead pencil /li:d ´pensil/
[n] changes into [m]
e.g. main path /mein pɑ:θ/
Before [k, g] the consonant
[t] changes into [k]
e.g. light coat /lait koʊt/
[d] changes into [g]
e.g. good company /gud ´kʌmpəni/
[n] changes into [ŋ ]
e.g. woolen coat /`wulən koʊt/

Before [ʒ, ʃ], the consonant
[s] changes into [ʃ]
e.g. this shop /ðis ʃɔp/
[z] changes into [ʒ]
e.g. has she /hæz ∫i:/
LUONG TRINH
Coalescence of [t, d, s, z] with [j] often takes place at word boundaries in colloquial speech:
[ t + j ] = [tʃ], e.g. what you /wɔt ju:/
[ d +j ] = [dʒ], e.g. would you /wud ju:/
[s + j ] = [ʃ ], e.g. in case you /in keis ju:/
[ z + j ] = [ʒ], e.g. as yet /æz jet/


5.4.3.2. Dissimilation Rules
Dissimilation: is a phenomenon where by similar consonant or vowel sounds in a word become less similar.
Assimilation is a common phonological process by which one sound become more like a nearby sound.
Dissimilation Rules
Dissimilation, like assimilation , may involve a change in pronunciation relative to a segment that is adjacent to the affected segment or at a distance, and may involve a change relative to a preceding or a following segment.
Dissimilation Rules
On the whole, dissimilation is much rarer than assimilation, although there are some well –known instances.
Dissimilation Rules
Ex:
diphthong [f] is changed into [p]

[‘dIf. θɒŋ] , [‘dIp-]
5.4.3.3. Feature Addition Rule
Feature addition rule: neither assimilation or dissimilation rule.
It’s no new feature but there is only a change in feature which does not present in phonemic matrices.

Feature Addition Rule
The new sound is just a variant of the original sound and it does not reveal the phonemic distinction.
Ex:
ten : /ten/ is changed into /then/
But it also belongs to the phoneme /t/





Feature Addition Rule
Pen : /pen/ is change into /phen/
But it also belongs to the phoneme /p/

Ken : /ken/ is change into /khen/
But it also belongs to the phoneme /k/

5.4.3.4 Segment Addition Rules
( epenthesis)
Epenthesis : is acoustic phenomena that inserting a sound segment into a form.
Epenthesis may be divided into two types:
Excrescence, for the addition of a consonant.
EX: sherbet sherbert.

Andanaptyxis: the insertion of a short vowel between consonants in order to make a word more easily pronounceable.
EX: the middle `a` thataway.
5.4.3.4 Segment Addition Rules
( epenthesis)
Plural /z/ /’z/ after another sibilant
(s-type sound)
Ex:
Pronounced /iz/ end with [-ses, -xes,-zes,-ches,-ghes,-ces,-shes]
Teaches, buzzes, brushes…
5.4.3.5 Segment Deletion Rules
Segment Deletion Rules or Elision: is the leaving out or disappearance of sounds in rapid.
☻Elision of vowels
☻Elision of consonants.
The reduction of consonant clusters was established long ago.
The initial |w,k,g| may be dropped
Ex: write, know, gnat…
The medial |t,d| are dropped in a cluster of three consonants
Ex: listen, soften
 The final |b| in the cluster |m,b|
Ex: lamb, dumb
5.4.3.5 Segment Deletion Rules

The clipped forms are typical only of rapid speech. In English, the reduction of clusters continues taking place.
5.4.3.5 Segment Deletion Rules
The stop [t] or [d] in [-st,-ft,-ʃt,-nd,-ld,-zd,-ðd,-vd] in final position when followed by a word with an initial consonant are often reduced in rapid speech.
EX:
last time, old man

Word final of stops or affricate +[t] or [d] [-pt,-kt, -ʃt, -bd,-gd,-dƷd] may lose the final alveolar stop when the following word begin with a consonant.
EX: kept quiet, lagged behind
The alveolar [t] of the negative n’t is often reduced before a consonant.
EX: you mustn’t do it [ m^sn du:]
When [t] or [d] occur between two other stops, they are never heard.
EX: locked gate, strict teacher
[h] may be dropped in the following monosyllables when non initial and unstressed.
EX: have, has, has, he, him, his, her, who.
EX: Tell him he is wanted.
Tell him [tel im…]
he is [hi:z]



Vowel sounds can be deleted in contracted forms in unstressed position.
Ex:
I’m [aim]
/ə/ can be disappeared after plosives /p/, /t/, /k/
Elision of initial glottal sound /h/ in HE, HIM, HIS, HER(S)
Elision of /v/ in OF before consonants
Alveolar plosive voiced /d/
5.4.3.6. Schwa Rule
- Schwa [ə]: a quick, relaxed, neutral vowel pronunciation  .
- It represents a mid-central vowel in an unstressed syllable.
- The reduction of vowel sounds in unstressed called schwa sound.
The spelling of schwa


a spelling : about, vitamin
e spelling : petition, celebrate
i spelling : university, experiment
o spelling :o`clock , today, tonight
u spelling : campus, support







Schwa 
unstressed syllable
of a multi-syllable word
reduced vowel sound
in a function word
Schwa occurs in two different circumstances:


In an unstressed syllable of a multi-syllable word.
EX:
emphasize, doctor, psychological,…
EX: emphasize
stressed secondarily stressed


emphasize

unstressed
 As a reduced vowel sound in a function word.

Reduction is a process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of vowel sounds in unstressed positions.
Reduction reflects the process of lexical and grammatical changes:
In unstressed syllables within words.
 EX:
demonstrative

 In unstressed form-words, auxiliary and modal words, personal and possessive pronouns within intonation groups and phrase.
Types of reduction
Quantitative
reduction
Qualitative
reduction
The elision of
vowels in the
unstressed position.
1.Quantitative reduction :
The shortening of a vowel sound in the unstressed position, affects mainly long vowels.
EX:
he [hi: - hi].
When does he come?
[wen dəz hi ˛kΛm].


the obscuration of vowels towards
[ə, i, υ], affects both long and short vowels.

EX2: and [ænd-ənd]
Ladies and gentlemen
[`leɪ.di ənd`dʒen.tl.mən]
EX1: can [kæn – kən].
You can easily do it.
[ ju: kən `i:zili˛du: it ].
2. Qualitative reduction :
Vowels in unstressed form-words in most cases undergo both quantitative and qualitative reduction.
EX :
to [tu: – tu - tə].
I didn`t want to [ tə ] walk there, but [bət] i had to [tu:]

The elision of vowels in the unstressed position.
EX:
I’m up already
[aim Λp ˛o:lredi ].
PHAN Y
Some Notes on the Strong and Weak Forms of Vowels
Prepositions: have their strong forms though they might remain unstressed
a. At the very end of an intonation group or phrase
Ex:
What are you looking at? |æt|
b. Monosyllable prepositions followed by the unstressed pronoun either stressed or not.
Ex:
I’m not ‘talking ‘to you. |’tu: jə|
I’m not ‘talking to ‘you. |tə ‘ju:|
c. Polysyllable prepositions followed by a pronoun. Are stressed as a rule.
Ex:
Have a look ‘under it. |’ʌndə|

2. Auxiliary and normal verbs: have their strong forms
a. At the end of an intonation group or a phrase. Whether stressed or not.
Ex:
Who has done it? Mary has. |hæz|
Are you free? I am |æm|
b. At the beginning of general and alternative questions in careful colloquial styles They are stressed
while in rapid colloquial style They are unstressed and reduced
c. In contracted negative forms Stressed
Ex: I don’t know. |dəunt|
3. The following form words should be remembered as having no weak forms: What, where, when, which, how, on, in with, then.
Ex:
What’s your name? |wɑ:t|
How are you? |haʊ|
4. The verb to have used as a content verb in the meaning of the possess has no weak forms (whether stress or not) though often unstressed
Ex:
I have a book

5. The demonstrative pronoun: never reduce
Ex:
These are my friends.
Those are maple trees.
This is an apple
That is a good idea.

6. The absolute forms of possessive pronouns: not reduced
Ex:
The ball-pen is mine

7. All the form word, auxiliary, modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns: are generally stressed and consequently have their strong forms in case they become the logical centers of phrases.
Ex:
I’m ‘speaking of ‘your work , not of ‘your sister’s.
We should note that non –reduced unstressed sounds are often retain in:
a. Compound words.
Ex:
Blackboard
b. Borrowing from French and other languages.
Ex:
Bourgeoisie


Phonological rules may also move phonemes from one place in the string to another.
It means that there is a possible to change the linear order of segments by permulations of one type or another.
Ex:
Ask/aks
Nuclear/nucular
Animal/aminal

5.4.3.7.Movement (metathesis) rules