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E_English Grammar Course
Unit 8
The Complex Sentence
Subordination
Classifications of subordinate clauses
Subordinators
Nominal clauses
Adverbial clauses
Comparative and Comment clauses
Issues
Subordination
1
1/1
Subordination
Non-symmetrical relation held
between two clauses: one clause is
a constituent/ part of the other
Subordination
1
1/2
1 2 21
[I like John [because John likes me] ]
1 1
[superordinate/ independent/ main clause ]
2 2
[subordinate/ dependent clause]
Non-symmetrical relation held
between two clauses: one clause is
a constituent/ part of the other
Subordination
1
1/3
X- Y- Z-
( I think [ that you can do it { if you try} ] )
S V O A

X = superodinate to Y
Y = subordinate to X
Y & Z = dependent clause
X = independent clause
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/1
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type
By functional type
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/2
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/3
contains a subject and a predicate
verb phrase having tense, person & number concord, & mood
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/4
By structural type
Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Infinitive with to
Infinitive without to
-ed participle
-ing participle
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/5
By structural type
Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Infinitive with to
Infinitive without to
-ed participle
-ing participle
Without S: The best thing would be to tell everybody.
With S: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/6
By structural type
Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Infinitive with to
Infinitive without to
-ed participle
-ing participle
Without S: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
With S: Her aunt having left the room, I declared my
passionate love for Celia..
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/7
Without S: All I did was hit him on the head.
With S: Rather than John do it, I’d prefer
to give the job to Mary.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/8
Without S: Covered in snow, he looked like a snowman.
With S: We left the room and went home, the job finished.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/9
1. Ellipsis of the verb ‘be’
- Dozens of people died in the accident, many of them children.
- Whether right or wrong, he always dominates the arguments.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/10
2. Reduction of non-finite clauses
Too nervous to reply, he stared at the book in front of him
and dared not look up.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
2
2/11
Subordinators
3
3/1
Subordinators
3
3/2
after, though, although, as,
because, before, if, once
since, that, until, when
where, while, etc.
Subordinators
3
3/3
ending with ‘that’: in that, so that, such that …
ending with optional ‘that’: now (that), provided (that),
supposing (that), seeing (that)…
ending with ‘as’: so far as, as long as, so as (to do sth)…
ending with ‘than’: sooner than, rather than…
others: as if, as though, in case
Subordinators
3
3/4
if… then, although… yet, as… as, so… as, so… that
no sooner… than, more/ less… than, the… the, whether… or
Subordinators
3
3/5
Other indicators of
subordination
Wh-element initial markers
Subject-operator inversion
No marker
Subordinators
3
3/6
I don’t know who knocked at the door last night.
Subordinators
3
3/7
Had it not been for your help, I would have died.
Subordinators
3
3/8
1. nominal clause
e.g. I suppose (that) you’re right.
2. comment clause
e.g. You’re right, I suppose.
Nominal clauses
4
4/1

Nominal Clauses
Finite
Non-finite
that clause
wh-interrogative clause
Yes - No interrogative clause
Nominal relative clause
to-infinitive nominal clause
nominal –ing clause
bare infinitive
Nominal clauses
4
4/2

- S: That you were wrong is undeniable.
- Od: I knew that I was wrong.
- Cs: The problem is that he refuses to
speak in court.
- Appositive: The fact that he hates English
makes it hard for him to study it.
- Cadj: I’m sure that things will improve.
Nominal clauses
4
4/3

Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cadj,
& Cprep (They haven’t decided on who
wins the cup.)
- Leave a gap of unknown information
Nominal clauses
4
4/4

Is formed with if/ whether
e.g. Do you know if/ whether the teacher
has come yet?
Nominal clauses
4
4/5

S: What he is pursuing is fame.
Od: I want to see whoever in charge of
this department.
Oi: She gave whoever came into the store
a handful of sweets.
Cs: University is where you train for your
future career.
- Co: You can call me whatever you like.
- Ap: Tell me your nickname, that is, the
way your friends often call you.
Cprep: Vote for whichever candidate you
like.
Nominal clauses
4
4/6
- S: To become an MC has always
been my dream.
- Od: John wanted her to open the door.
- Cs: My wish is to stay here one
more week.
- Ap: His ambition to be a famous
writer was fulfilled.
- Cadj: I’m glad to help you.
Nominal clauses
4
4/7
- Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cprep,
& Cadj
- Genitive case in formal style
e.g. I’m surprised at his making
that mistake.
Objective or common case:
e.g. I’m surprised at him making
that mistake.
Nominal clauses
4
4/8
- ‘to’ is optional in case of ‘do’ proform.
E.g. All I did was (to) turn off the gas.

- bare infinitive is obligatory when the
infinitive clause is initial
E.g. Turn off the gas was all I did.
Adverbial clauses
5
5/1
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
Adverbial clauses
5
5/2
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
- after, before, until, since, when + finite clause
- after, before, since, until, when(ever), while + V-ing
- once, until, when(ever), while + V-ed
- as soon as, once, when(ever), while + Verbless clause
Adverbial clauses
5
5/3
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
- Introduced by ‘where’/ ‘wherever’
E.g. When I retire, I will travel wherever I like.
Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but rubble.
Adverbial clauses
5
5/4

- Conditional clauses state the dependence of one circumstance
on another.
- Introduced by if, unless, provided that, providing that…
E.g. If you’re kind to her, she will do anything for you.
Adverbial clauses
5
5/5
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
- Concessive clauses imply a contrast between two circumstances.
- Introduced by though, although, while, whereas, even if
E.g. Although he isn’t good-looking, people are still attracted to him.
Adverbial clauses
5
5/6
Adverbial clauses
5
5/7
Clauses of condition
or concession
Alternative conditional-concessive clauses
E.g. Whether they beat us or we beat them,
we’ll celebrate tonight.
Combine conditional meaning with
subjunctive meaning
Adverbial clauses
5
5/8
Clauses of condition
or concession
Universal conditional-concessive clauses
E.g. No matter how hard he tried, he could
never summon enough courage to tell her
the truth.
Indicate a free choice from among any
number of conditions
Adverbial clauses
5
5/9
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
- introduced by because, since, as
- I didn’t lend him the book because I needed it for my assignment.
(adjunct)
- They’ve lit a fire, because I can see smoke rising.
(disjunct of reason)
Adverbial clauses
5
5/10
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
- express a fulfilled condition/ a relation between a premise
(in the subordinate clause) and the conclusion (in the main clause)
- introduced by because, since, as, & seeing that
E.g. Seeing that the weather has improved, we shall enjoy our game.
= The weather having improved, we shall enjoy our game.
Adverbial clauses
5
5/11
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
- are adjuncts
- introduced by (in order) (for N) to, so as to, so that
E.g. I tiptoed into the room so as not to wake the baby up.
He tried to improve his English so that he could study abroad.
- has ‘putative’ meaning (modal auxiliaries are used)
Adverbial clauses
5
5/12
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
- are more factual than putative  may contain an ordinary verb form
without a modal auxiliary
- introduced by so that/so (informal)
E.g. We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden looked beautiful.
Adverbial clauses
5
5/13
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
Clauses of manner – (exactly) as, (just) as
(Just) as a moth is attracted by a light, (so) he was fascinated by her.
Adverbial clauses
5
5/14
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
Clauses of comparison – as if, as though
He looks as if he is going to faint.
He treated me as though I were a child (unreal)
Adverbial clauses
5
5/15
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
Clauses of proportion express a ‘proportionality’ or equivalence
of tendency between two circumstances
E.g.
As he grew older, (so) his enthusiasm for the cause decreased.
The more he went deeper into the forest, the more scared he felt.
Adverbial clauses
5
5/16
Time
Place
Condition & concession
Reason or cause
Circumstance
Purpose
Result
Manner & Comparison
Proportion & Preference
Clauses of preference are introduced by rather than/ sooner than
E.g. Rather than go there by air, I’d take the train.
Rather than sitting here complaining, we should act.
Rather than a new shirt, he bought a dictionary.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/1
Comp-element
S: More people eat at KFC than any other
fastfood restaurant.
Cs: I’m healthier than most people of my age.
Od: She eats much more than me.
Oi: Santa has brought more children joy
than anybody else.
A: She works harder than my brother.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/2
Ellipsis in Comparative Clause
1. Optional ellipsis
James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed the cake.
James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed it.
James enjoyed the cake more than Susan did.
James enjoyed the cake more than Susan.
2. Obligatory ellipsis (of object)
- James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed.
+ James know more about the theatre than Susan knows.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/3
Ambiguity
He loves the dog more than his wife.
through ellipsis
with ‘too’ & ‘enough’
He’s too ill to move.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/4
Comment Clauses
Features
Forms
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/5
Comment Clauses
Features
Forms
- can be either disjuncts or conjuncts
- may occur initially, finally, or medially
- have a separate tone unit

E.g. The Smiths, as you probably know, have
been our neighbor for twenty years.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/6
Like a main clause
At that time, I believe, he didn’t understand a thing.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/7
(2) Like an adverbial clause (with as)
I’m a perfectionist, as you may know.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/8
(3) Like a nominal relative clause as conjunct
What is more, we lost all our hope and courage.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/9
(4) To-infinitive clause as style disjunct
To be honest with you, I didn’t understand a thing he said.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/10
(5) –ing clause as style disjunct
I’m concerned, speaking as a linguist, about the language
of the young people today.
Comparative & comment clauses
6
6/11
(6) –ed clause as style disjunct
Stated bluntly, he had no chance of winning.