Ngữ âm

Unit 1 INTRODUCTION
I. LEXICOLOGY, ITS SUBJECT MATTER AND TASK
The Linguistic organization of linguistic material:
- phonology
3 main branches - grammar
- lexis (vocabulary)

Lexicology
(Greek: = lexis (meaning) + logos (science, learning)
= science/study of the word)
A. TASK:
Study & systematic description of vocabulary of a given language
B. SUBJECT MATTER:
The word, its structure, meaning & history
C. SUBJECT MATTER:

The word, its structure, meaning & history
5 branches of lexicology:
1. word structure & formation:
structure of the word & the way it is formed
2. semasiology/semantics:
(lexical) meaning of word: types, change & development
3. phraseology: lexis:
set/fixed expression (idioms, proverbs)
4. etymology:
history, origin of words (whether words are native or borrowed)
5. lexicography:
dictionary compiling (types of dictionary, selection & arrangement of words)
D. Approaches of lexicology
General lexicology:
treat vocabulary in general
Special lexicology:
treat the vocabulary of a given language
Historical lexicology:
discusses the vocabulary in diachronic aspect
Descriptive lexicology:
studies the vocabulary in synchronic aspect
II. SIGNIFICANCE OF LEXICOLOGY
In foreign language teaching
build up student`s vocabulary (select, group, analyze new words)
distinguish between different styles of speech
express more ideas within a limited vocabulary
develop skills of using types of dictionaries
test student`s knowledge of vocabulary
provide a better insight into various cultural aspects of target language
III. LEXICOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO PHONOLOGY, GRAMMAR & STYLISTICS
Contribution to lexicology from:
Phonology:
condition of word unity & mark word limits,
e.g. `RED tape vs red `TAPE lipservice
Grammar:
grammatical form & function of a word affect its lexical meaning
e.g. feel (link V) vs feel (trans. V)
Stylistics:
same words of different styles bring about different meanings,
e.g. hell (standard) vs hell (non-standard)
IV. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
English vocabulary:
composite, mixed: 2 main layers:
1. native:
words of Anglo-Saxon origin -
foundation/basic stock: oldest, stable, polysemantic
e.g. man, woman, door
2. borrowed:
words of foreign origin
e.g. chic, rendevouz

WORD STRUCTURE & FORMATION


A. WORD STRUCTURE
1. The morpheme :
1.1. Definition :
the minimal meaningful language unit.
not independent, occurs in speech only as part of word

1.2. The types of morphemes :
1.2.1. The root morpheme (mostly lexical morpheme/free) :
the primary element of the word
convey its essential lexical meaning
remains after removing all the other elements
cannot be analyzed any farther
E.g. care heart
careful hearten
carefulness dishearten
carefully heartily

1.2.2. The affixational morpheme
a. The grammatical morpheme (inflection or ending)
used to create different forms of the same word
carries the grammatical meaning only
studied in grammar
E.g. - s in books, pens, tables
- ed in opened, arranged ....
Inflectional paradigm :
a complete set of forms of a word in an inflectional pattern .
the system of grammatical forms characteristic of a word
E.g. big, bigger, biggest (comparison)
cats, cat’s tail
opens, opened, opening



b. The derivational morpheme (lexico-grammatical morpheme)
carrying both lexical and grammatical meaning.
used to create new words
studied in lexicology
E.g. pre in prewar ; re in rearrange ; ness in happiness ; ly in fatherly
Derivational paradigm :
the system of derivational forms characteristic of a word
E.g. fatherless, fatherhood, fatherly
care, careful, careless, carefully

THE DIVISION OF ENGLISH MORPHEMES
MORPHEME

ROOT AFFIXATIONAL

Free bound
inflectional derivational
prefix suffix
2. The word
2.1. Definition:
a dialectical unity of form and content,
an independent unit of language to form a sentence by itself
2.2.The types of the words:
a. Simple word : only consists of a root morpheme
E.g. man, land, small, table, etc.
b. Derived word: consists of a root with one or more derivational morphemes: nationalize
E.g. hope+ful+ly read+able
R+de.Af+de.Af R+de.Af
c. Compound word: R+R (+ n de.Af)
has at least two roots, with or without derivational morphemes.
E.g. noticeboard, lady killer, walkman, notebook
Division of English words
WORD


SIMPLE WORD DERIVED WORD COMPOUND WORD
(one root) (root + n derivational) (root +n root)


B. WORD FORMATION
I. Definition:
process of building new words from the already existing word according to a certain structural and semantic patterns and formulas
II. Affixation:
formation of new words with the help of affixes (prefix/suffix)
II.1. Prefixation
1. Characteristic features
prefixes rarely form new parts of speech
some coincide with words mostly prep & adv
E.g. over, out, up
2. Classification: 3 main groups :
negative meaning : unhappy, disease, misfortune, immoral
reversal or repetition of an action : undo, disconnect, remarriage
space and time relationship : pre/ postwar, overwork, supermarket

II.2. Suffixation :

1. Characteristic features:
-change the meaning of stems both lexically and grammatically
E.g. (to) write  writer
friend  friendly/friendship
cloud  cloudy/cloudless
- Suffixes have the peculiarities :
+ polysemy : -er in worker, doer, Londoner
+ homonym : -s in spectacles (eye glasses), colours (flag)
2. Classification :
according to parts of speech:
- noun - suffixes : -er, - or, - ing, ness
- adjective - suffixes : -able, -ful, -ish, -like, etc
- verb - suffixes : -en, -ize , -ish
- adverb - suffixes: -ly, -ward, -wise


COMPOUNDING (word - composition)
1. Definition :
the building of a new word by joining two or more words.
E.g. book keeper, well - known, (to) baby-sit
2. Characteristic features
Components of a compound:
- at least two root morphemes
E.g. worldwide, ice - cream, downstairs, motherland
R + R R + R R + R R + R
- derived words or even other compound words.
E.g. kindhearted, easy - going, greengrocer
R + DE.W R + DE.W R + DE.W
- or even other compound words
E.g. [[stone age] CP + [cave dweller] CP] CP

- English compounds have two stems :
+ determinatum (head) :
the second element, being the basic part in the compound, usually expressing a general meaning
+ E.g : film star, home - made, maidservant
+ determinant (dependent/modifier):
the first element, being a determining part in the compound, premodifying the determinatum
E.g. Wastepaper basket

wastepaper basket
determinant (dependent) determinatum (head)
, statesman, honeymoon
2.Criteria of compound words :
2.1. Phonological criterion :
- a heavy stress on the first element, especially most of compound nouns.
E.g. `PICKpocket, `BLACKboard, `FILMstar
- compound words which have double stress
E.g. `good `egg, `happy - go - `lucky
2.2. Inseparability criterion
- insertion of a word is impossible
E.g. homemade, honeymoon, house keeper
- sometimes, elements of a compound are separated in some cases
E.g. Both cigar and cigarette smokers have to spend a lot
2.3. Semantic criterion
- single idea : A + B = S
E.g. make - up, brother - in - law, up - to - date
- The meaning of the whole compound word is not the sum of the meanings of its components
E.g. green -grocer (a person selling vegetables), honeymoon (vacation after wedding ceremony) , breakdown (a stoppage through accident)
2.4. Graphic/ spelling criterion
if X: spelt with a hyphen or with no separation
then X: a compound.
E.g. notebook , fountainpen, take - in , teach - in
old age (not compound) old - age pensioner (compound
3. Semi - affixes
- have generalized lexical meaning and great ability to be combined with a great number of roots.
E.g. half in half - done, half - broken, half - eaten
well in well - fed, well - done, well - prepared
man in postman, chairman, cabman
- lose their grammatical independence, even their meaning
- often used in combinations.
4. Classification of compound words :
4.1.Classification according to meaning:
+ Non - idiomatic compounds (Motivated): meanings easily deduced from the meaning of the components
E.g. bookshelf, salesgirl, handshake, table - cloth
+ Idiomatic compounds (Non-motivated): no relationship between the meanings of the component;
meanings cannot be deduced
E.g. eye -wash (something said or done to deceive a person)
fiddlesticks (nonsense, rubbish)
4.2. Classification according to componental relationships
+ Coordinate compounds :
components: both structurally and semantically independent
E.g. girl friend, Anglo - Saxon, oak - tree
+ Subordinate compounds :
domination of one component (structural center) over the other (dependent).
E.g. book keeper, baby sitter, wrist - watch, road building
4.3. Classification according to the part of speech :
+ Compound nouns : sitting room, blackboard
+ Compound adjectives: hot tempered, age - long
+ Compound verbs : to handwash, to baby-sit
+ Compound adverbs: whole heatedly, self -confidently
+ Compound prepositions : into, onto, inside
4.4. Classification according to compositional types :
+ Compounds formed by juxtaposition (i.e. without connecting elements)
E.g. queen-bee, heart-broken, daytime
+ Compounds formed by morphological means (i.e. with vowel or consonant as a linking element)
E.g. speedometer, statesman, bridesmaid
+ Compounds formed by syntactical means (i.e. group of words condensed into one word)
E.g. merry - go - round, up - to - date
+ Compounds formed by both by morphological and syntactical means (i.e. phrases turned into compounds by means of suffixes and hyphen) :
E.g. bottle -opener, heart - shaped, long - legged

5. Miscellanea of compounds :
+ Derivational compounds
structural integrity is ensured by a suffix
E.g. two - sided, broad - mended, honeymooner, pen - holder
+ Reduplicative compounds :
imitating sounds or repeating one of their components
E.g. goody - goody , fifty - fifty, hush - hush, zig - zag , chit - chat
+ Faded compounds :
compositional characteristic: "faded" & hardly recognizable .
E.g. breakfast, cupboard, highway, Sunday, boatswain
+ Dead compounds :
compositional characteristics: etymologically analysed & discovered
E.g. husband , kidnap
SHORTENING
1. Characteristic features
- highly productive, specifically in colloquial speech and advertisement
- a good way of creating roots : can take endings.
E.g. examination exam, laboratory  lab,
television  TV, refrigerator  fridge
2. Types of shortening :
2.1 Acronyms : built from the initial letters of several words
E.g. S.O.S : Save Our Souls
BBC : British Broadcasting Corporation
UNO : United Nations Organizations
MP : Member of Parliament
Two special cases of acronyms :
+ Monograms :
- two or more letters combined in one design
- used in handkerchief, note - paper or in wedding invitation cards



+ Homonymy :
based on the use of identical sounds of words letters
E.g. U2 = ?, mobi 4Y = ?
I. O .U = ?
2.2. Clipping :
- shortening a word of two or more syllables (usually N and A)
+ Initial clipping : the first part of a word is clipped :
E.g. telephone  phone, helicopter  copter
+ Final clipping : the last part of a word is clipped :
E.g. Advertisement  ad , microphone  mike
+ Initio - final clipping : the first and the last part are clipped
E.g. influenza  flu , detective  tec
+ Elliptico - conversional clipping (phrasal clipping) : E.g.
music
ular
popA

popN
perm (from permanent ware), taxicab (from taxi meter - cab)

3. Blending :
parts of words merge into one new word.
E.g. breakfast and lunch

br + unch

smoke and fog

sm + og

transfer and resistor

trans + istor




CONVERSION ZERO DERIVATION
XA +   XB (A & B: different parts of speech)
1. Definition
new word formed in a different part of speech without adding any element.
E.g. workN  to workV , loveN  to loveV , waterN  to waterV
2. Characteristic features :
- The difference between words in each pair is :
+ Morphological : new paradigm
E.g. work - worked - working
+ Syntactic : new function
E.g. He worked very hard
+ Semantic : completely new meaning
E.g. act : a scene in a play
to act : to do something
- the most productive way of creating new words
3. Forms of conversion :
a. Traditional conversion :
commonly and traditionally used by the public, recorded in dictionaries
b. Occasional conversion :
- individual use of conversion in special situation, occasions,
- to express one`s idea vividly, humorously.
E.g. package - to package, wireless - to wireless, holiday - to holiday
c. Partial conversion: verb +   noun
in verbal phrases like : "have, take, make + N"
E.g. dance  to have a dance,
progress  to make progress
d. Substantiation : Adjective +   Noun
E.g. deaf  the deaf ; rich  the rich
poor  the poor ; old  the old
Back derivation/back formation : XA - Af X`B
1. Definition :
subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words.
E.g. baby - sitter - er (Af)  to baby sit
beggar - gar (Af)  to beg
2. Characteristic features
- an opposite process to affixation :
- fairly productive in building compound verbs from compound nouns
E.g. to tape record (from tape recorder), to air condition (from air - conditioner)

SOUND IMITATION (ONNOMATOPOEIA)
1 Definition : (phonetical motivation)
imitating sounds produced by actions, things and so on.
2 Classification :

ABLAUT & STRESS SHIFT- SOUND AND STRESS INTERCHANGE
1. Sound interchange go – went suppletion
changing the root vowel or consonant form the old word.
E.g. song  to sing
/ s  ŋ /  /s I ŋ /
breath  breathe
/ bre  /  / bri:  /
2. Stress interchange
building the place of the stress on the old one.
E.g. present  to present
/’preznt/  / pri’zent ,
accent  to accent
/ ‘ksent/  /  ‘sent /


SEMASIOLOGY /SEMANTICS
1. Types of meaning:
1.1. Lexical meaning :
- usually associated with real-world referents (e.g. entities, situations)
1.2. Grammatical meaning :
- unites words with different lexical meanings into groups with their own grammatical features (with the presence of categorical markers).
E.g. book, chair, boy, house : nouns
red, good-looking, tired, talkative : adjectives
1.3. Notional Words & Function words:
- notional words (whose lexical meaning is clear) name objects, actions, qualities, etc.
- functional words (whose prevailing meaning is grammatical), e.g. particles, articles, prepositions, etc.
2. The components of lexical meaning :
2.1. The denotational meaning (denotation)
- indicates or points out things, concepts, etc which is called referent & sense.
E.g. wind - a phenomenon of nature
a child - a young person from birth to the age full physical development, a table - an object
significative denotation (sense): concept, abstract idea, e.g. love, happiness
Denotation
demonstrative denotation (referent): individual object, e.g. a table, that cat
2.2) The connotational meaning (connotation)
- shows us how things, concepts, etc are indicated. It conveys the speaker`s attitude, emotions and so on.
E.g. - die, pass away, go to the west
- child, kid
- father, dad, daddy
Connotation ingredients

like, love,
worship,
large, big,
tremendous
magic,
witchcraft,
sorcery
magnificent
gorgeous,
splendid,
superb
slang :
governor
(father) ;
bookish :
anticipate
(to expect)
3. The types of lexical meaning






































Direct meaning :
(literal meaning)
indirectly
based on
comparison or
association with
other things

Indirect meaning
(figurative/
transferred
meaning)

denotes
something
not based on
comparison or
association with
other things
comprehension

directly

Type of meaning
Function

4. Motivation of words :
the relationship between
- structure and meaning,
- sound and meaning,
- direct and indirect meaning.






















































- 4.1. :
E.g. re + write: to write something again in a better way
again + action
4.2. :

.
4.3) E.g. mother mother tongue
mother country

Mophologic
motivation

morphologic
structure
of the word meaning
mor. mor.

Phonetic motivation
phonetic structure of
the word meaning
sound-form & sound
produced by object

sing + er:
action + agent
a person who sings


E.g. splash, boom,
bang, ping-pong
break
break something
break one`s heart


co-existence of direct
Meaning & indirect
meaning or literal &
Metaphor/figurative

Semantic motivation
5. Polysemy and semantic structure
5.1. Polysemy
- a word has more than one meaning
E.g. to take, to get, to set
5.2. Semantic structure :
- formed by all the meaning of a word:
+ The first meaning: "the direct or primary" meaning
+ The other meanings: "secondary or derived"
E.g.
fortune

WORD MEANING
Grammatical meaning
Lexical meaning



chance of luck (primary)
a large amount of money
a person`s destiny or future
Denotation
Connotation
Significative
Demonstrative
Emotion
Evaluation
Intensity
Stylistic color
6. The stylistic aspect of English vocabulary



















Standard
Neutral words (neither formal nor informal)
- used in all styles, all spheres of human life
E.g. he, I, table, woman, hand, white, etc.
Colloquial (spoken) informal, casual, lively, down-to-earth
E.g. - superb, terrific, bike, exam, kid (words)
- why on earth..., make sure, goodness gracious
Bookish:
* General: chiefly in formal speech, especially in writing
E.g: accommodation (room), donation (gift), assist (help)

Bookish Scientific/learned: monosemantic (neutral)
& polysemantic (in different sciences):
E.g. a march
Operation act performed by a surgeon
addition, subtraction
Poetic & archaic words (poetry)

E.g. naught (nothing), ere (before), lone (lonely)
, hapless (unhappy)

Non-assimilated foreign:
- borrowed from different languages.
- retain their spelling and pronunciation
E.g. fiancé (French) cliché

Non-
standard
General slang: sub-standard due to excessive informality

E.g. bird (girl), cop (policeman), governer (father)

Speech slang/jargon : (understandable to the members
within some social &professional groups only)
E.g.- lab (laboratory), a buster (a bomb)
- a sucker: a person who is easily deceived
Vulgar (dirty words)
- not generally used in public
- express anger, annoyance, disagreement …
E.g. shut up, damn, hell, bloody

chiefly
spoken
Diabolical: belong to only a definite territory or locality
E.g.Loch (Scottish) = lake
6. The stylistic aspect of English vocabulary



















Standard
Neutral words (neither formal nor informal)
- used in all styles, all spheres of human life
E.g. he, I, table, woman, hand, white, etc.
Colloquial (spoken) informal, casual, lively, down-to-earth
E.g. - superb, terrific, bike, exam, kid (words)
- why on earth..., make sure, goodness gracious
Bookish:
* General: chiefly in formal speech, especially in writing
E.g: accommodation (room), donation (gift), assist (help)

Bookish Scientific/learned: monosemantic (neutral)
& polysemantic (in different sciences):
E.g. a march
Operation act performed by a surgeon
addition, subtraction
Poetic & archaic words (poetry)

E.g. naught (nothing), ere (before), lone (lonely)
, hapless (unhappy)

Non-assimilated foreign:
- borrowed from different languages.
- retain their spelling and pronunciation
Non-
standard
General slang: sub-standard due to excessive informality

E.g. bird (girl), cop (policeman), governer (father)

Speech slang/jargon : (understandable to the members
within some social &professional groups only)
E.g.- lab (laboratory), a buster (a bomb)
- a sucker: a person who is easily deceived
Vulgar (dirty words)
- not generally used in public
- express anger, annoyance, disagreement …
E.g. shut up, damn, hell, bloody

chiefly
spoken
Diabolical: belong to only a definite territory or locality
E.g.Loch (Scottish) = lake







STANDARD
NON-STANDARD
Neutral
Bookish
Colloquial
Slang
Vulgar
General
Special
Dialectal
General
Scientific
Poetic-archaic
non assimilated


ENGLISH WORD


7. Polysemy , homonymy and context
7.1. Context :
a) Lexical context :
lexical groups going with the polysemantic or homonymous word.
E.g. "heavy" heavy
heavy
b) Grammatical context :
grammatical structure going with the polysemantic or homonymous word.
E.g. I feel sad vs I’m feeling the overhead projector.
S feel C vs S feel O d
E.g. to make ≈
to make ≈
weight
intensity
X
load
table
X
rain
wind
link
Transitive
X
somebody do something
X
a good wife
to force/ to induce
to become
When linguistic context cannot help
He put down his arms.
Arm: Polysemantic word
c) Non - linguistic (situational context):
- actual situations in which the word is used
- help settle the problem of ambiguity.
He put down his arms.
Polysemy or Homonymy or ?
E.g. I gave her a ring yesterday
Solution?
Modify the context
Yesterday I gave her a ring
?
Part of body
weapon
Polysemy
ambiguity
?
a phone call
an ornamental band
but the line was engaged
made of diamond
and she promised to wear it forever
7.2. Homonyms :
a) Definition :
words identical in pronunciation and / or spelling but different in meaning.
E. g: sea-see tear-tear
son-sun hear-here
b) Characteristic features :
- Most English homonyms are monosyllabic
- Homonymy is a source of ambiguity
c) Classification :
+ Homophones: words identical in pronunciation only
E.g weight - wait right - write
hour - our feet - feat
+ Homographs : words identical in spelling only
E.g. tear (v) - tear (n)
wind (v) - wind (n)
bow (v) - bow (n)
+ Full homonyms : words identical in both pronunciation and spelling
E.g. case

d) Source of homonyms :
+ The break of polysemy :
one word has acquired various meanings due to the development of language
E.g. "flowers" and "flour": originally from one word "flour"
+ Phonetic and morphologic coincidence :
E.g. I - eye ; bee -be
t  t 

wand wnd


ba b

a box, a container
something that has happened
7.3. Polesemy versus homonymy :
a) Semantic criterion :
- polysemantic:
there is a logical relationship between the meanings of a word
E.g. horn

run

- full homonyms:
no logical relationship between the meanings of a word
E.g.

case



something that has happened
a question decided in the court of law
a box, a container
an act of running
to move with quick steps
an instrument
of an animal
b) Derivational criterion :
only X or Y forms its own derivatives
E.g. air - aircraft - airport
c) Synonymy - based criterion :
synonyms of X & Y have nothing in common
E.g. back (n) - a part of body
back (adv) - away from the front
ball (n) - a round object used in games
ball (n) - a gathering of people for dancing
d) Combinability criterion :
two or more meanings of X have different combining ability or different paradigms
E.g. lie - lay - lain long - longer - longest
lie - lied - lied to long - longed - have/has longed

8. Synonyms
8.1. Definition :
phonetically and morphologically different words of the same part of speech, possessing similar denotation but differing in connotation, combinability, etc.
E.g. to seem, to look, to appear
to begin, to commence, to start
to die, to pass away, to kick the bucket
8.2.) Characteristic features :
- synonymic dominant, the most general, neutral word in a synonym group
E.g. to help, to aid, to assist
to die
to begin
to look
to help
8.3) Classification :
a) Semantic synonyms :
differing in shades of meaning
E.g. *nice, pretty, good looking, beautiful, attractive
- to like, to love
b) Stylistic synonyms :
differing in stylistic aspects
E.g. - to die- to pass away
- girlfriend - bird
c) Semantico - Stylistic synonyms :
differing in both shades of meaning and stylistic aspect
E.g. - to experience, to undergo, to sustain, to suffer
- house - slack - slum

d) Phraseological synonyms :
differing in their collocations
E.g. - to say
- to speak
- to do
- to make
e) Territorial synonyms :
synonyms that belong to different countries
E.g. - autumn (E) - fall (A) - autumn (Aus)
8.4) Sources of synonyms
a) Borrowings :
E.g. to gather (native) - to assemble (French) - to collect
to end (native) - to finish (French) - to complete (Latin)
b) Change of meaning:

X
what is communicated
X
s.thing without content
X
s.th as activity/ work
X
sth as creation/ construction
c) The development of word formation :
+ Derivation and compounding
E.g. - to abandon - to give up
- trader - tradesman
- arrangement - layout
+ Conversion
E.g. - conversation - talk/chat
- laughter - laugh
+ Shortening :
E.g. - examination - exam
- laboratory - lab

9. Antonyms
9.1. Definition :
words of opposite meaning and of the same part of speech
E.g. joy - sorrow
increase - decrease

9.2. Characteristic features:
+ Usually adjectives denoting qualities, verbs denoting actions or state and abstract nouns have antonyms
E.g. big - small
buy - sell
happiness - misery
- Antonyms play an important role in the stock of English set expressions
E.g. black and white ; far and near
- A polysemantic word can have different antonyms
E.g. on purpose  by chance/ by accident

9.3) Classification :
a) Root - word antonyms/ antonyms proper or absolute antonyms:
completely different in sound - forms of different roots.
E.g. love - hate
ugly - good looking
single - married
b) Derivational antonyms :
formed by derivation (words of the same root)
E.g. logical - illogical
careful - careless
appear - disappear
prewar - postwar
10. Semantic change
10.1. Semantic Narrowing of meaning (specialization)
From a wide range of meaning, a word now has a narrow one (the meaning of a word to be less general, more specific)
accident: any event, especially an unexpected one  an unintended injurious or disastrous event (original meaning obsolete)
deer: any four-legged beast  members of the family Cervidae (original meaning obsolete; replaced by the French word animal)
ledger: any book that lay permanently in the same place > an accounts book (original meaning obsolete)
goal: aim or purpose > football goal (still polysemous)

Some specializations are motivated by the avoidance of synonymy, as in the case of deer, pig, cow, sheep specialized after beef, pork, and mutton (from French).
E.g : hound: a dog of any breed  a dog used in the chase; queen: any wife (of any men)  a king`s wife

10.2. Broadening of meaning/ Generalisation (semantic widening): Extension
the meaning of a word to be more general, less specific
you guys: male only  male and female
manage: to handle a horse  to handle anything successfully (original meaning obsolete)
A word has been extended its own meaning
E.g. camp :temporary quarters of travelers, normads  the place where troops are logged in tents

10.3. The so - called "degeneration" of meaning Pejoration (degradation)
extending words to new meanings which convey negative attitudes. The meaning of a certain word becomes worse, less nice, lower in status
E.g. "boor" : a villager , a peasant  a clumsy or ill - bred fellow
"knave" : boy  swindler, rogue

Negative attitudes towards certain groups can be reflected in semantic extensions which are intentionally insulting.
E.g. addressing a grown man as boy to oppress (American South); this reflects negative cultural attitudes towards blacks.
referring to women as bitches ‘female dog’
referring to homosexuals as queers ‘peculiar’
Negative attitudes towards certain groups can also lead people who oppose those negative attitudes to extend non-discriminatory words to refer to members of those groups.
they (pl)  (sg.) (a gender-neutral way of expressing ‘he or she’)
gay ‘happy’  ‘homosexual’ (also metonymy)
10.4. The so - called "elevation" of meaning
The meaning of a word becomes " better, nicer, higher, in status
E.g. minister: a servant, an attendant - head of a ministry.
Bad  powerful
10.5. Figures of speech
- deviations from or common forms of statement.
- picturesque, vivid language appealing to imagination,
- making for clearness and easy comprehension
- Basic principles of popular figures of speech: similarity and association
a) Metaphor :
+ Definition and characteristic features :
- transference of names based on the association of similarity
* The similarity of shape
E.g. The head of a cabbage
The teeth of a saw


* The similarity of position
E.g. The foot of a mountain ; The leg of a table
* The similarity of function:
E.g. The head of the class
The key of the mystery
* The similarity of movement
E.g. to worm
* The similarity of colour
E.g. orange, rose
* The similarity of size
E.g. elephantine
* The similarity of behaviour or character
E.g. a fox, a snake

* Names of the part of human body, names of animals are a great source of metaphor
E.g. - The back of a book
- She is a fox
* Set expressions are based on names of animals as well
E.g. crocodile tears
* A number of proper names are used as metaphors
E.g. - He is a Don Juan
- She is a new Madonna
* The transference of space relations on mental is sometimes a good source of metaphors :
E.g. - to catch (to grasp) an idea.
- to throw light upon
- to get the hang of

+ Classification :
* Living metaphor :
unusual metaphorical sense in the creation and usage by an individual
E.g. ".......... she lent wings to his imagination ..."
(Jack London)
* Faded metaphor :
has lost its freshness due to long and traditional use
E.g. - He is an Othello
- Her voice is sweet
* Dead metaphor
no longer felt as a metaphor due to complete loss of direct meaning
+ Metaphor versus simile
- Metaphor: direct comparison and simile: indirect one.

b) Metonymy
+ Definition and characteristic features :
the transference of name based on association of contiguity (expressing something in terms of one of its attributes or something closely related to it).
E.g. - The kettle is boiling
- I want to have a word with you
+ The cases of metonymy
* Names of containers are used for the things contained
E.g. He drank twenty glasses
* Names of parts of the body are used as symbols
E.g. She has a good ear of music
* Proper names are used as common names
E.g. Champagne, burgundy, madeira
* Names of materials are used instead of the things made
E.g. China (ware), Holland (linen) Morocco (leather)
Concrete things are used instead of abstract things
E.g. The White House, The Pentagon, Wall Street
* A separate part is used instead of a whole thing and vice versa
E.g. I used to live without a roof over my head.
INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE
The company laid off 50% of its workers.
(company = leaders of the company)
Singapore is supposed to call this morning.
(Singapore= representative of a company in Singapore)
The University will not agree to that.
(University = leaders of the university.

CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED
I was driving along and I hit a tree.
(I = my car)
Nixon bombed Hanoi.
(Nixon = bombs ordered by Nixon)
PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT
Chomsky is on the top shelf.
(Chomsky = book by Chomsky)
He owns a Picasso.
(Picasso = artwork by Picasso)
I’d like to drive a Ford. (Ford = car made by Ford)
PART FOR WHOLE
The suits upstairs don’t like the idea at all.
(suits = business people wearing suits)
She’s not just another pretty face. (face = person)
We need a hand here. (hand = person who can help)
Other examples of metonymy:
He lives across the street.
(across the street = at a place across the street)
The ham sandwich at table four needs more coffee.
(ham sandwich = customer with a ham sandwich)
He walked through the door.
(door = door frame)
The buses are on strike.
(buses = bus drivers)
She’s in design.
(design = the design profession)
We need some good minds for this project.
(good minds = intelligent people)


PHRASEOLOGY
I. Definition & characteristic features
1.The study of set expressions (phraseological units), e.g.
in high feather
2. Structural features
completely or partially fixed
grammatical structure and lexical components: stable.
E.g. in high feather  *in tall feather
but
to kill two birds with one stone  I killed three birds with one stone

3. Semantic & stylistic features
set expressions may be:
+ motivated (meaning can be deduced)
+ non-motivated (meaning cannot be deduced),
e.g. to pull one`s leg
+ Expressions of figures of speech:
- metaphor: a dog in the manger
- metonymy: a golden boot
+ Expressions based on alliteration and contrast,
e.g. now or never...
+ Expressions based on synonymy,
e.g. by leaps or bounds...
+ Expressions based on rhyme,
e.g. by hook or by crook...
II. Classification: based on
Phraseological fusions: completely non-motivated or
idiomatic; cannot be literally translated into other
languages, e.g. a nice kettle of fish
1.motivation
Phraseological unities: partially motivated or partially idiomatic (general meaning can be deduced),
e.g. to fish in trouble water
Phraseological combinations/ collocation: clearly
motivated; component used in direct meaning; retain complete semantic independence though limited in combinative power, e.g. as sweet as honey
like nouns,
e.g. a skeleton in the cupboard
2. function
like verbs,
e.g. to make eyes at...
like adjectives,
eg. as meek as a lamb
like prepositions,
e.g. in consequence of
like interjections,
e.g. son-of-a-bitch !
III. Proverbs, idioms, quotations, clichÐs & sayings
1. Proverb:
a short saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or moral lesson, e.g.
Two heads are better than one, no pains no gain
- lexical components are constant, stable, e.g.
tit for tat
- meaning: figurative, ready-made units, e.g.
make or mar
- often elliptical, e.g.
(so) may dishes (so) may diseases
2. Idiom:
expression, short saying
- meaning cannot be deduced from components
- not instructive, moral in nature, e.g.
kick the bucket, mum the words

3. Quotation:
- expression from literature
- gradually become part and parcel of the language, e.g.
To err is human,
Live now pay later,
Life is but a sea of trouble

4. ClichÐs:
quotation or saying so frequently used to become hackened and stale, e.g.
stand shoulder to shoulder with...,
pave the way to a bright new world

IV. Set expressions vs compound words
Criteria to distinguish set expressions from compound words:
- The divisibility of a set expression into separately structural elements
- The structural integrity of a compound
- Derivational ability
- The spelling of some compounds: solid and hyphenated
ETYMOLOGY
I. Basic assumptions on English vocabulary:
- Mixed character
- 2 main layers of English vocabulary:
1. Native words: Anglo-Saxon origin: 30%
2. Borrowed words: completely or partially assimilated: 70%
- sound-form borrowings
- semantic borrowings (English origin - foreign related meaning),
e.g. red (revolutionary due to influence of French word rouge)
- translation loans (material available in English - patterns of other languages),
e.g. wall newspaper: a literal translation loan from Russian
- source vs origin: paper (borrowed from French but originated: Greek)

II. Assimilation of borrowings:
The confirmation to the phonetical, graphical, grammatical and lexical rules of the receiving language
According to degree of motivation: 2 groups
1. Completely assimilated words:
- old borrowings, frequent and stylistically neutral
E.g. cheese, wine, street (Latin)
husband, fellow, happy (Scandinavian)
table, face, finish (French)
2. Partially assimilated words:
2.1. Semantically non-assimilated words:
-denote objects, notions peculiar to the original country, e.g. kimono, sheik
2.2. Grammatically non-assimilated words:
- keep their original plural forms, e.g. crisis --- crises, index --- indices
2.3. Phonetically partially assimilated words:
- stress on the final syllable, e.g. police, cartoon, machine, prestige
- alien sounds, e.g. bourgeois, regime, memoir
- whole different pattern, e.g. potato, opera, tomato, confetti
2.4. Graphically partially assimilated words
E.g. cafÐ, clichÐ, fiancÐ, corps, ballet

III. Barbarisms (unassimilated borrowings)
completely non-assimilated borrowed words in both oral and written forms
E.g. coup d` Ðtat
IV. Etymological doublets
Two or more words of the same language derived by different routes from the same basic word, e.g. canal --- channel; hospital --- hotel (Latin - French doublets)
V. International words:
- have identity or similar sound forms and meaning
- used in many languages
- the majority in scientific terms, e.g. atomic, antibiotic, phenomenon...
VI. Causes in borrowings
1. Non-linguistic cause:
contact between Britain and other countries through business, invasions, conquests...
2. Linguistic causes:
The necessity to name new things, ideas, notions...
-to replace group of words by a single word, e.g. campus
- to enrich the expressive means of English
LEXICOGRAPHY
I. Types of English dictionaries
1. General dictionaries:
+ Explanatory/ uni-lingual dic.
focus on form, usage and meaning of words
- treating words synchronically,
e.g. Advanced Learner`s Dictionary of Current English
- treating words diachronically,
e.g. Webster New International Dictionary
+ Bilingual / Translation dic.
contain vocabulary items in one language and their equivalents in another language
+ Learner`s dictionary
e.g. Advanced Learner`s Dictionary of Current English by A.S. Hornby (etal)
2. Specialized dictionaries:
aim at covering a certain specific part of the vocabulary (synonyms, antonyms, terms, phraseology, pronunciation, etymology...)
- Technical dictionary
- Phraseological dictionary
- Pronouncing dictionary
- Etymological dictionary
- Usage dictionary
- Dictionary of word frequency
- Dictionary of collocations
- Dictionary of synonyms
- Dictionary of Abbreviations
- Dictionary of Proverbs
- Dictionary of Slang

NTC’s English Idioms Dictionary Richard A. Spears NTC
English Pronouncing Dictionary Daniel Jones CUP
Language Activator Longman
Webster’s NewWorld Thesaurus Charlton Laird Prentice Hall Press
Electronic Dictionary Online Yahoo.com
The Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations Oxford
Dictionary of Proverbs Rosalind Fergusson The Penguin
Dictionary of American Slang Robert L. Chapman Perennial Lib.
Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms NXB KH & KT