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Syllables
How many syllables are there?
Syllables
A syllable is a group of one or more sounds. The essential part of a syllable is a vowel sound.
If a word has more than one syllable, you give stress to one of the syllables.
STRESS
STRESS IN SIMPLE WORDS
STRESS IN COMPLEX WORDS
SIMPLE WORDS VS.
COMPLEX WORDS
Simple words: words that are composed of one grammatical unit
Eg: care, beauty, happy,…
Complex words: words that are composed of more than one grammatical unit (affixes or compound words)
Eg: carelessness, unhappy, suitcase…

STRESS IN SIMPLE WORDS
Nature of stress
Levels of stress
Stress placement within words
NATURE OF STRESS
Definition
Transcription
Characteristic

DEFINITION of stress

Stress is an extra force put on a particular syllable in a word in speech
(Source: A course in phonetics, Peter Ladefoged)
Eg: GOing /`g@UIÎ/
phoTOgrapher /f@`tÁgr@f@/
TRANSCRIPTION

Place a vertical line (`) high up just before the syllable it relates to.
Eg: open /`@Up@n/
determine /dI`tÆ:mKn/

CHARACTERISTIC
Two ways of approaching stress
Production
What the speaker does in producing stress syllables.
Perception
What characteristics of sound make a syllable seem to be stressed to listeners.
PRODUCTION OF STRESS
The speakers use more muscular energy to pronounce stress syllable than for unstressed ones.
The muscles that we use to expel air from the lungs are more active  create higher subglottal pressure.
PERCEPTION OF STRESS
All stressed syllables have one characteristic in common: prominence.
Factors making a syllable prominent
Loudness
Length
Pitch
Quality
LEVEL OF STRESS
Primary stress
Secondary stress
Unstressed

PRIMARY STRESS
Strongest type of stress
The pitch move from higher to lower pitch
Often presented with a vertical line high up (`) before the stressed syllable
Eg: around /@`raUnd/
disaster /dI`zA:st@/
Secondary stress

Weaker than primary stress
Stronger than unstressed syllable
Often presented with a low mark (")
Eg: disapprove /"dIs@`pru:v/
anthropology /"{nTr@`pÁl@dZi/

Placement of stress within words
In order to decide on the stress placement, it is necessary to make use of some or all of the following information.

a. Whether the word is morphologically simple or
complex. (whether the word is a simple, derived or compound word).
b. The grammatical category to which the word belongs.
c. The number of syllables in the word.
d. The phonological structure of the word.
Simple word stress
1. Two syllable words
a. Verbs
b. Adjectives
c. Nouns
d. Adverbs and prepositions
2. Three syllable words
a. Verbs
b. Nouns
c. Adjectives
Stress pattern rules
Two syllable verbs
a long vowel
a diphthong (but /əʊ/)
> 1 final cont.
Refer /rɪˈfɜ:r/
design /dɪˈzaɪn/
perfect /pəˈfekt/
Stress pattern rules
Two syllable verbs
a long vowel
a diphthong (but /əʊ/)
> 1 final cont.
visit /ˈvɪzɪt/
borrow /ˈbɒrəʊ/
open /ˈəʊpən/
Stress pattern rules
Two syllable nouns
a long vowel
a diphthong (but /əʊ/)
routine /ru:ˈti:n/
design /dɪˈzaɪn/
Stress pattern rules
Two syllable nouns
a long vowel
a diphthong (but /əʊ/)
student /ˈstju:dənt/
sorrow /ˈsɒrəʊ/
Two-syllable Adjectives

Two syllable adjectives are stressed according to the same rules as verbs. Examples:

correct major
polite complete
heavy happy
sincere precise
Notes

Other two-syllable words such as adverbs and prepositions seem to behave like verbs and adjectives. Examples:
beyond never
seldom behind
again very
before after
except across
Stress pattern rules
Three syllable verbs
a short vowel
≤ 1 cont.
consider /kənˈsɪdər/
determine /dɪˈtɜ:mɪn/
interpret /ɪnˈtɜ:prɪt/
Stress pattern rules
Three syllable verbs
a long vowel
a diphthong (- /əʊ/)
> 1 final cont.
introduce /ˌɪntrəˈdju:s/
entertain /ˌentəˈteɪn/
resurrect /ˌrezəˈrekt/
Stress pattern rules
Three syllable verbs
_ate
_fy
_ise/-ize
concentrate /ˈkɒnsəntreɪt/
certify /ˈsɜ:tɪfɑɪ/
criticise /ˈkrɪtɪsaɪz/
Stress pattern rules
Three syllable nouns
potato /pəˈteɪtəʊ/
disaster /dɪˈzɑ:stər/
mimosa /mɪˈməʊsə/
a short vowel
/əʊ/
a long vowel
a diphthong
> 1 final cont.
Stress pattern rules
Three syllable nouns
cinema /ˈsɪnəmə/
camera /ˈkæmərə/
evidence /ˈevɪdəns/
a short vowel
əʊ
a short vowel
≤ 1 final cont
Stress pattern rules
Three syllable nouns
a long vowel
a diphthong
> 1 final cont.
photograph /ˈfəʊtəgrɑ:f/
marigold /ˈmærɪɡəʊld/
intellect /ˈɪntɪlekt/
Three-syllable Adjectives
Three-syllable adjectives seem to need the same rules as Nouns to produce stress pattern such as:
opportune insolent
possible derelict
important absolute
enormous similar
accurate popular
Complex word stress
Types of complex words
Stress in complex words
Variable stress
Word-class pairs
Types of complex words
Words with affixes
Stem + suffix
Prefix + stem
Compound words

Effects of affixes on word stress
Primary stress on affix
Unchanged primary stress on stem
Changed primary stress on stem
Effect of affixes on word stress
Primary stress on affixes

Commonly, primary stress is on the 1st syllable of suffix. If stem consists of more than one syllable, the stem has secondary stress.

‘-ee’: refugee /"refjU`dZi:/
‘-eer’: volunteer /"vÁl@n`tI@/
‘-ette’: cigarette /"sIg`ret/
‘-ese’: Japanese /"dZ{p@`ni:z/
‘-esque’, ‘-ique’: picturesque /"pIktS@`resk/ -unique /"ju:`ni:k/
‘-ology’: technology /tek`nÁl@dZi/
‘semi’: semicircle /`semisÆ:kl/, antibody /`{ntIbÁdi/
Effects of affixes on word stress
Unchanged primary stress on stem

‘-able’: comfort /`kömf@t/ vs. comfortable /`kömft@bl/
‘-al’: refuse /rI`fju:z/ vs. refusal /rI`fju:zl/
‘-ish’: devil /`devl/ vs. devilish /`devlIS/
A list of affixes which do not change the stress on stem.
-able -hood -ise -ment -ship
-al -ing -less -ness under-
-ful in-/im- -ly un- -age
-like -wise -ous
Note
Adjectives end with suffix ‘-ish’ : no change in stress placement
Verbs end with ‘-ish’: stress on syllable immediately preceding ‘ish’
e.g.: devilish /`devlIS/
demolish /dI`mÁlIS/
Effects of affixes on word stress
Changed primary stress on stem

‘-eous’: advantage /@d`vA:ntIdZ/ vs. advantageous /"{dv@n`teIdZ@s/
‘-graphy’: photo /`f@Ut@U/ vs. photography /f@`tÁgr@fi/
‘-ic’: climate /`klaImKt/ vs. climatic /klaI`m{tIk/
‘-ial’: industry /`Ind@stri/ vs. industrial /In`döstri@l/
‘-ion’: perfect /`pÆ:fIkt/ vs. perfection /p@`fekSn/
‘-ity’: able /`eIbl/ vs. ability / @`bIlKti/
Compound words
a. If the first word/part of the compound is in a broad sense adjectival, the stress goes on the second element with a secondary stress on the first.
loudspeaker
full moon
fast food
new moon
open hearted
ill mannered

Compound words
b. If, however, the first element is, in a broad sense, a noun, the stress goes on the first element.
car ferry
tea cup
suitcase
bottle feed
boatpeople
farm house
airplane
bodyguard
bedroom
Word class pairs
Some words are both nouns and verbs. For example, record is a noun if you put stress on the first syllable, and a verb if you put stress on the second syllable.
record contrast desert export object present produce protest
There is not always a change of stress in words that are both nouns and verbs. For example, answer, picture, promise, reply, travel and visit always have stress on the same syllable.
Variable stress
Stress placement may change for 2 reasons:
Effect of other surrounding words’ stress on the word in question
Disagreement among speakers about stress placement in some words

Effect of other surrounding words’ stress
Disagreement among speakers