Grammar

Chapter 21 – Phrases
Prepositional, Appositive, and Verbal Phrases
Prepositional Phrases
A Prepositional Phrase begins with a preposition and ends with its object.
A prepositional phrase can function as an adjective when it modifies a noun.
Ex: The girl with green eyes is my sister.
A prepositional phrase can function as an adverb when it modifies a verb.
Ex: The car raced down the street.
Appositives
An appositive is a noun or pronoun -- often with modifiers -- set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it.
Examples of Appositives
Appositives
An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.
Punctuating Appositives
In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.
Punctuating Appositives
Exercises
1. My son, the policeman, will be visiting us next week.
2. The captain ordered the ship`s carpenters to assemble the shallop, a large rowboat.
3. Walter, the playboy and writer, is very attached to his mother, Mrs. Hammon.
4. The actor Paul Newman directed only one picture.
5. Elizabeth Teague, a sweet and lovable girl, grew up to be a mentally troubled woman.
Exercises
Underline and punctuate the appositives in the following sentences. Remember: not all require punctuation.
6. Sweetbriar a company known throughout the South is considering a nationwide advertising campaign.
7. An above-average student and talented musician John made his family proud.
8. The extremely popular American film Titanic was widely criticized for its mediocre script.
9. The greatest American film ever made Citizen Kane won only one Academy Award.
10. 60 Minutes the TV news magazine program featured a story on the popular singer Whitney Houston.
Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.
Syntax of Gerund Phrases
Gerund as subject:
Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
Gerund as direct object:
They do not appreciate my singing.
They do not appreciate my assistance.
Gerund as subject complement:
My cat`s favorite activity is sleeping.
My cat`s favorite food is salmon.
Gerund as object of preposition:
The police arrested him for speeding.
The police arrested him for criminal activity.
Gerund Phrases
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund.
Syntax of Gerund Phrases
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we`re trying to do.
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)
Syntax of Gerund Phrases
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)
offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
Syntax of Gerunds
Newt`s favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents.
The gerund phrase functions as the predicate nominative.
lying (gerund)
to his constituents (prepositional phrase completing the idea begun by the gerund)
Syntax of Gerund Phrases
You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.
The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.
faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)
Syntax of Gerund Phrases
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)
Punctuating Gerund Phrases
Punctuation
A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.
Because it functions as a noun, you don’t separate it from the rest of the sentence.
Points to Remember
A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).

Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.
Gerund Practice
1. Swimming keeps me in shape.
2. Swimming in your pool is always fun.
3. Telling your father was a mistake.
4. The college recommends sending applications early.
5. He won the game by scoring during the overtime period.
6. Her most important achievement was winning the national championship.
7. Going to work today took all my energy.
8. Fighting for a losing cause made them depressed.
Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.
The crying baby had a wet diaper.
Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
The burning log fell off the fire.
Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
Participial Phrases
A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle
Participial Phrases
Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Jack.
Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle)
Participial Phrases
Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin.
walking (participle)
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb)
Participial Phrases
Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual skills.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children.
introduced (to) (participle)
music (direct object of action expressed in participle)
early (adverb)
Participial Phrases
Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn.
Having been (participle)
a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being expressed in participle)
Placement of Participial Phrases
In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.
Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. *
Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can`t be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence.
Punctuating Participial Phrases
When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.
Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.
Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.
The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:
The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.
The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
Punctuating Participial Phrases
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.
The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
Points to Remember
A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: a) comes at the beginning of a sentence, b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element, or c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.
Exercise on Participles:
Underline the participial phrase(s) in each of the following sentences, and draw a line to the noun or pronoun modified.
 
1. Getting up at five, we got an early start.
2. Facing college standards, the students realized that they hadn`t worked hard enough in high school.
3. Statistics reported by the National Education Association revealed that seventy percent of American colleges offer remedial English classes emphasizing composition.
4. The overloaded car gathered speed slowly.
5. Gathering my courage, I asked for a temporary loan.



Rewrite the following sentences (you may need to reword them slightly) with the correct placement and punctuation of the participial phrases.

11. Espousing a conservative point of view the proposal for more spending on federal social programs bothered him.
12. Absorbed in an interesting conversation my scheduled appointment time passed unnoticed.
Exercises on Participial Phrases
In each of the following sentences, underline the participial phrase(s), draw a line to the word(s) modified, and punctuate the sentence correctly. Remember that some sentences may not need punctuation.

6. Starting out as an army officer Karen`s father was frequently transferred.
7. Mrs. Sears showing more bravery than wisdom invited thirty boys and girls to a party.
8. The student left in charge of the class was unable to keep order.
9. Applicants must investigate various colleges learning as much as possible about them before applying for admission.
10. The crying boy angered by the bully began to fight.
Revising Misplaced Phrases
Rewrite the following sentences (you may need to reword them slightly) with the correct placement and punctuation of the participial phrases.

11. Espousing a conservative point of view the proposal for more spending on federal social programs bothered him.
12. Absorbed in an interesting conversation my scheduled appointment time passed unnoticed.
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.
To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)
Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)
We must study to learn. (adverb)
Infinitives vs. Prepositional Phrases
Be sure not to confuse an infinitive--a verbal consisting of to plus a verb--with a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.
Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong
Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address
Infinitive Phrases
An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive
Infinitive Phrases
We intended to leave early.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb intended.
to leave (infinitive)
early (adverb)
Infinitive Phrases
I have a paper to write before class.
The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying paper.
to write (infinitive)
before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)
Infinitive Phrases
Phil agreed to give me a ride.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb agreed.
to give (infinitive)
me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive)
a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)
Infinitive Phrases
They asked me to bring some food.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb asked.
me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to bring (infinitive)
some food (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)
Infinitive Phrases
Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb wanted.
Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to be (infinitive)
the captain (subject complement for Carol, via state of being expressed in infinitive)
of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective)
Punctuation Infinitive Phrases
If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.
To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.
To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.
Points to Remember
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or actor(s).

An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.
Exercises on Infinitives
Underline the infinitive phrase and label the way it is used in the sentence, adding any punctuation as needed.

1. I want to go.
2. I want you to go home.
3. We want to see the play.
4. To see a shooting star is good luck.
5. To fight against those odds would be ridiculous.

Exercises on Infinitives
Now underline the infinitive phrase and label how it is used in the sentence.

6. To design a new building for them would be challenging.
7. I want him to be my bodyguard.
8. Jim is expected to program computers at his new job.
9. They will try to build a new stadium in ten years.
10. To distill a quart of moonshine takes two hours.
11. The president wants to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
12. She has the money to buy it.
13. We demonstrated to attract attention to our agenda.
14. I do not like to give poor grades.
15. The dogs were taught to stand, to sit, and to bark on command.
16. To be great is to be true to yourself and to the highest principles of honor.
17. To see is to believe.